Use of 19 F magnetic resonance to non-invasively assess pO2 and temperature in vivo

ABSTRACT

Oxygen tension of tissue in a living subject may be determined non-invasively by a method which involves: administering to a living mammalian subject a biologically compatible perfluorocarbon emulsion in an amount effective to generate a measurable  19  F spectrum under  19  F NMR spectroscopy; allowing sufficient time to elapse for substantially all of the perfluorocarbon emulsion to be cleared from the vascular system of the subject, with a portion of the perfluorocarbon emulsion becoming sequestered in tissue of the subject; subjecting the tissue in which the perfluorocarbon emulsion has become sequestered to a  19  F magnetic resonance spectroscopy procedure in which simultaneous measurements are made of spin-lattice relaxation rates for at least two separate resonances of the perfluorocarbon emulsion; and comparing the at least two spin-lattice relaxation rates measured in the  19  F magnetic resonance spectroscopy procedure to a predetermined relation of spin-lattice relaxation rate to oxygen tension and temperature for the perfluorocarbon emulsion used, and thereby determining the oxygen tension and temperature of the tissue.

This is a continuation-in-part of application Ser. No. 482,879, filed on Feb. 21, 1990, now U.S. Pat. No. 5,236,694. That application is incorporated here by reference.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) techniques are finding increasing use in medical applications. NMR imaging, or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) as it is sometimes known, has been found to be useful in the detection of a variety of diseases and disorders. MRI has several advantages over other imaging techniques. For example, unlike computerized tomographic methods, MRI does not employ ionizing radiation, and therefore is believed to be safer. Also, MRI can provide more information about soft tissue than can some other imaging methods.

The majority of the NMR techniques developed so far have been based on imaging of hydrogen nuclei. However, other nuclei offer potential advantages with respect to NMR. ¹⁹ F in particular is of interest. The fluorine nucleus offers a strong NMR signal magnitude (high gyromagnetic ratio) close to that of protons. Virtually no imagable fluorine exists naturally in the human body, so essentially no background signal exists; any detectable signal comes only from whatever ¹⁹ F has been administered to the subject.

¹⁹ F is a stable isotope and is naturally abundant, so there is no need for isotopic enrichment. Because its gyromagnetic ratio is about 94% that of hydrogen, existing equipment designed to image protons can be inexpensively adapted for ¹⁹ F.

One important physiological parameter which might be assessed by means of ¹⁹ F NMR is tissue oxygen tension (pO₂). Oxygen is required for efficient function by most tissues; hypoxia leads to rapid cellular dysfunction and damage. In addition, tumor cells exhibit regional hypoxia, and their response to therapy is strongly dependent on the degree and extent of hypoxia. Tumors with very low pO₂ exhibit marked resistance to radiotherapy. Many chemotherapeutic agents act preferentially on euoxic or hypoxic tissue. Thus, a reliable method of estimating tumor pO₂ would be of significant help in treatment optimization for individual cancer patients.

Traditional techniques of measuring oxygen tension in tissue are generally invasive and sample localized volumes only, e.g., oxygen microelectrodes, mass spectrometer probes, or biopsy and cryospectrophotometry. Some noninvasive techniques which are available examine superficial tissues only, e.g. surface electrodes or fluorescence. Thus, the existing methods of measuring pO₂ have significant problems and limitations.

The ¹⁹ F NMR spin-lattice relaxation rate (R₁ =1/T₁) of perfluorocarbon emulsions is sensitive to oxygen tension. Therefore, ¹⁹ F MRI has been used to map tissue pO₂, but the data acquisition is slow (e.g., hours), in organs or tissue with low PFC concentrations, such as heart, brain, and tumor, and further tends to exhibit poor signal to noise ratios. ¹⁹ F MRI requires specific observation of a single resonance, or the application of elaborate deconvolution, and thus only a single estimate of pO₂ may be obtained.

Thus, a need exists for improved methods of measuring tissue oxygen tension. A non-invasive method that could measure pO₂ in vivo accurately and rapidly could be significant in understanding the mechanisms of tissue function, and in planning and managing cancer therapy.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to a method of noninvasively determining oxygen tension of tissue in a living subject. The method involves first administering to a living mammalian subject a biologically compatible ¹⁹ F-containing spectroscopy agent in an amount effective to generate a measurable ¹⁹ F spectrum under ¹⁹ F NMR spectroscopy. Sufficient time is allowed to elapse for substantially all of the ¹⁹ F-containing spectroscopy agent to be cleared from the vascular system of the subject (e.g., ≧95% cleared, and preferably 100% cleared), with a portion (preferably more than 50%) of the ¹⁹ F-containing spectroscopy agent becoming sequestered in tissue of the subject. (Often at least 95% of the agent will become sequestered in the liver and spleen.) Tissue in which the ¹⁹ F-containing spectroscopy agent has become sequestered is subjected to a ¹⁹ F magnetic resonance spectroscopy procedure, in which at least two independent measurements of spin-lattice relaxation rates are made. In this context, independent measurements are defined as spin-lattice relaxation rates from at least two separate resonances of the ¹⁹ F-containing spectroscopy agent, which can be measured simultaneously. Finally, at least two spin-lattice relaxation rates measured in the ¹⁹ F magnetic resonance spectroscopy procedure are compared to a predetermined relation of spin-lattice relaxation rate to oxygen tension at a given temperature and magnetic field for the ¹⁹ F-containing spectroscopy agent used, and thereby the oxygen tension and optionally also the temperature of the tissue are determined. This comparison can be done graphically, or by solving simultaneous equations determined from the predetermined relationship.

If at least two measurements of spin-lattice relaxation rates are made at different times, the dynamic change in oxygen tension can be determined therefrom.

In a preferred embodiment of the present invention, the method includes the steps of:

administering to a living mammalian subject a biologically compatible perfluorocarbon emulsion in an amount effective to generate a measurable ¹⁹ F spectrum under ¹⁹ F NMR spectroscopy;

allowing sufficient time to elapse for substantially all of the perfluorocarbon emulsion to be cleared from the vascular system of the subject, with a portion of the perfluorocarbon emulsion becoming sequestered in tissue of the subject;

subjecting tissue in which the perfluorocarbon emulsion has become sequestered to a ¹⁹ F magnetic resonance spectroscopy procedure in which simultaneous measurements are made of spin-lattice relaxation rates for at least two separate resonances of the perfluorocarbon emulsion; and

comparing the at least two spin-lattice relaxation rates measured in the ¹⁹ F magnetic resonance spectroscopy procedure to a predetermined relation of spin-lattice relaxation rate to oxygen tension and temperature for the perfluorocarbon emulsion used, and thereby determining the oxygen tension and temperature of the tissue.

In another embodiment of the present invention, two tissue regions are assessed simultaneously based on the discrete distributions of two separate perfluorocarbons, each of which has a distinct spectrum.

The present invention uses ¹⁹ F NMR spectroscopy to measure the ¹⁹ F NMR spin-lattice relaxation rate (R₁) of agents such as perfluorocarbon emulsions that are sequestered in tissue. Spectroscopy has the advantage of providing a multi-resonance spectrum. NMR spectroscopy also offers superior sensitivity and thus considerably improved temporal resolution over ¹⁹ F MRI, albeit with a loss of spatial resolution. This improved temporal resolution permits observation of dynamic changes in pO₂, even in organs that take up as little PFC as the heart. Pulse-burst saturation recovery spectroscopy is an especially preferred technique, providing rapid determinations of pO₂.

The R₁ of each resonance is sensitive not only to pO₂, but also to temperature and magnetic field. Thus, calibration curves are required at the specific field of investigation. Separate calibration curves are required for pO₂ at different temperatures.

Because each resonance is within a single molecule, each nucleus will be at the same temperature and pO₂. Thus, the pO₂ estimated from each of the two R₁ s will only concur when the temperature estimate is also correct. This is significant since there are often considerable differences between temperatures at different sites in an animal, e.g., core rectal temperatures versus skin temperatures, and these may vary during the course of a study. The simultaneous observation of a pair of ¹⁹ F resonances provides an internal control to validate the pO₂ estimates.

Another embodiment of the present invention relates to the finding that pO₂ and temperature are uniquely and simultaneously defined by the relaxation rates of a pair of resonances. In other words, for a particular magnetic field, for each combination of a particular ¹⁹ F-containing agent, temperature, and pO₂, there is a unique R₁ calibration curve. Therefore, if one measures more than one resonance for a given tissue with a ¹⁹ F-containing agent present in that tissue, the plurality of readings can be compared to pre-existing R₁ calibration curves, and the pO₂ and temperature of the subject tissue can be determined simultaneously without having to directly measure either. This eliminates the need to make estimates of tissue temperature by other means which may not be reliable, especially for tissue relatively far from the body's surface.

Flow of PFC through tissue produces artifacts in the measurement of T₁. The problems caused by flow when using ¹⁹ F-containing material circulating in the vascular system are avoided in the present invention by allowing substantially complete vascular clearance of the perfluorocarbon prior to examination, and then observing the perfluorocarbons sequestered in tissue.

The advantages of the present invention include high sensitivity to pO₂, ability to determine pO₂ and temperature simultaneously, corroborative measurement from multiple resonances, and thus improved accuracy, ability to assess tissues far from the body's surface, ability to assess localized pO₂ on the basis of discrete distribution of perfluorochemical in the tissue, and the ability to measure dynamic changes in pO₂.

The present invention can be used to determine pO₂ in a variety of organs and tissues, including liver, spleen, heart, and tumor. It should have a number of useful applications in medicine, such as assessing regions of hypoxia in solid tumors for use in planning and managing radio- and chemotherapy; assessing perfusion in ischemic heart, brain, kidney, and other tissue; and determining temperature field distributions during hyperthermia.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 shows a ¹⁹ F NMR spectrum of the perfluorocarbon (PFC) emulsion Oxypherol-ET.

FIG. 2 the variation of spin-lattice relaxation rate with oxygen tension for Oxypherol.

FIG. 3 shows a ¹⁹ F spectrum of the downfield CF₃ and CF₂ resonances of Oxypherol measured in vivo from a mouse tumor.

FIG. 4 shows relaxation curves for the CF₃ and CF₂ resonances of Oxypherol observed from a mouse tumor in vivo.

FIG. 5 shows the influence of carbogen breathing on tissue oxygenation. FIG. 5A shows the variation of measured relaxation time, and FIG. 5B shows the variation of pO₂ determined from the relaxation measurements.

FIG. 6 shows the relation of spin-lattice relaxation rate to pO₂ for the CF₃ resonance (FIG. 6A) and the CF₂ resonance (FIG. 6B) of Oxypherol as a function of temperature.

FIG. 7 shows the temperature dependence of the spin-lattice relaxation rate of Oxypherol in the absence of oxygen.

FIG. 8 shows the variation of spin-lattice relaxation rate with pO₂ for Oxypherol at 37° C. and 7 Tesla.

FIG. 9 shows the ¹⁹ F spectrum of the downfield CF₃ and CF₂ resonances of the CF₃ and CF₂ (2 ppm) resonances of Oxypherol sequestered in a perfused rat heart.

FIG. 10 shows the variation of spin-lattice relaxation time (FIG. 10A) and calculated myocardial oxygen tension (FIG. 10B) with global ischemia and reperfusion for a rat heart.

FIG. 11 shows in the lower trace the variation of pO₂ during the onset of global ischemia in a rat heart. The upper trace shows the corresponding ventricular pressure.

FIG. 12 shows the ¹⁹ F NMR spectrum of Oxygent (an emulsion of perflubron [perfluorooctylbromide]) in a tumor.

FIG. 13 shows the variation of ¹⁹ F NMR spin-lattice relaxation rate with pO₂ for the CF₃ resonance of Oxygent.

FIG. 14 shows the variation of spin-lattice relaxation rate with temperature in the absence of oxygen for the CF₃ and CF₂ resonances of Oxygent.

FIG. 15 shows a ¹⁹ F spectrum of Oxygent.

FIG. 16 shows the variation of relaxation rate with pO₂ for certain resonances of Oxygent and Oxypherol.

FIG. 17 shows the variation of spin-lattice relaxation rate with temperature in the absence of oxygen for two resonances of Oxygent.

FIGS. 18A through 18D show ¹⁹ F NMR spectra for the commercial PFC emulsions Oxypherol (emulsion of perfluorotributylamine) (18A), Oxygent (emulsion of perflubron) (18B), Therox (emulsion of bis-perfluorotripropylamine) (18C), and Fluosol (mixed emulsion of perfluorotripropylamine and perfluorodecalin) (18D).

FIG. 19 shows the relationship of oxygen tension and temperature with respect to two different resonances of Oxypherol-ET, and shows how pO₂ and temperature may be simultaneously determined.

FIG. 20 shows the simultaneous determination of temperature and pO₂ in vivo in a murine tumor and a perfused rat heart.

FIG. 21 shows the effect of tissue sequestration of the ¹⁹ F R₁ of Oxypherol.

FIG. 22 shows the response of ¹⁹ F R₁ of the CF₃ resonance of Oxypherol to variations in pO₂ at 5° C.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF SPECIFIC EMBODIMENTS

The present invention involves the use of biologically-compatible ¹⁹ F-containing compositions, which can be administered to a living mammalian subject without causing undue adverse consequences for the subject, such as toxicity. One particular group of compositions which are useful in the present invention is perfluorocarbon (PFC) emulsions, such as those that have been tested as potential blood substitutes.

Perfluorocarbons are essentially insert and exhibit very high gas solubility. They are immiscible with water, but may be formulated as emulsions (i.e., a dispersion of small droplets in an aqueous phase) with pluronic or egg yolk phospholipids. The pH and osmotic pressure of the emulsions are preferably adjusted to physiologic values.

Suitable perfluorocarbon emulsions include Oxypherol (FC-43 Emulsion; perfluorotributylamine 25% w/v, polyoxypropylene-polyoxyethylene copolymer 3.2% w.v, in distilled water, Alpha Therapeutics Corp., Los Angeles, Calif., and Green Cross Corp., Osaka, Japan), Oxygent (perflubron (perfluorooctyl bromide) emulsion, Alliance Pharmaceutical Corp., San Diego, Calif.), Fluosol (perfluorodecalin and perfluorotripropylamine in 7:3 ratio, stabilized by Pluronic F-68 and phospholipids, Green Cross Corp.), and Therox (F-44E, trans-1,2 bis(perfluorobutyl)-ethylene emulsion, DuPont, Deepwater, N.J.).

Other compounds which can be used include perfluorooctyl iodide, hexafluorobenzene, perfluorodimethyl cyclohexane, and tris(trifluoromethyl)benzene. It is also believed that perfluorooctyl chloride and compounds with 1,8 dihalooctane structures would be useful in the present invention.

PFC emulsions, when administered to a living subject, will be cleared from the vasculature in a matter of a few hours or a few days. A portion of the administered PFC will become sequestered in tissue in the subject, and will remain there long after the PFC is cleared from the bloodstream (i.e., for days to years). For example, perflubron has a half-life of ≈3 days in the major organs versus 65 days for the perfluorotripropylamine component of Fluosol.

In this context it should be noted that dilution of a perfluorocarbon and emulsification have been shown to have no significant effect on T₁. Also R₁ is unaffected by changes in pH, common proteins, or blood, or the presence of paramagnetic ions.

Each PFC emulsion has a unique multi-resonant spectrum, which is characterized by absolute (δ) and relative (Δδ) chemical shifts, relative signal intensities, and spin-lattice (R₁ =1/T₁) and spin-spin (R₂ =1/T₂) relaxation rates. Each of these parameters can be exploited in using PFC's to probe tissue physiology. The PFC of choice depends on characteristic NMR properties together with the usual considerations of emulsion stability, vascular retention, tissue targetability, and ultimate clearance from the body.

It is presently believed that Oxygent is considerably more sensitive to changes in pO₂ than many other commercial PFC emulsions, such as Oxypherol and Fluosol. In addition, the long transverse relaxation time T₂ of Oxygent makes it particularly useful for MR. Each of the three above-listed emulsions have shown similar clearance characteristics from the vasculature, and similar uptake and biodistribution in tissues. Oxygent, however, is eliminated much more rapidly from the body. Neat PFC's, such as hexafluorobenzene have shown even greater sensitivity to changes in pO₂, but the biological compatibility of these materials is not certain.

The present invention can make use of ¹⁹ F NMR equipment that is known to those skilled in this field (e.g., GE (Bruker) CSI Omega 4.7 T/40 cm spectrometer, Bruker AM 500 FT, or Siemens Magnetom H 1.5).

EXAMPLE 1

Three distinct types of experiments with a ¹⁹ F-containing emulsion were performed: calibration, measurements in vivo, and measurements in excised tissues. All NMR experiments were performed using a Nicolet NT300 (7 Tesla) spectrometer. The perfluorocarbon emulsion Oxypherol-ET (Alpha Therapeutics Corp. Los Angeles, Calif.) was prepared according to the manufacturer's instructions.

Standard gases were bubbled through aliquots of the emulsion in order to obtain specific oxygen concentrations: (i) 95% O₂, 5% CO₂ (carbogen), (ii) 12.2% O₂, 87.8% N₂, (iii) 8% O₂, 92% N₂, and (iv) 100% N₂. An additional sample was prepared by adding sodium dithionite (18 mg, Aldrich, St. Louis, Mo.) to Oxypherol-ET emulsion (2.5 ml), giving 0% O₂. (An approximate conversion of 760 Torr=100% may be used.)

The standard samples were placed in gas-tight NMR tubes (Wilmad Taperlok 528SJH, Buena, N.J.). Calibration experiments were performed using a high-resolution 5 mm Bruker fluorine probe at 34.2° C. with temperature regulation using an FTS TC 44 variable temperature unit (Stone Ridge, N.Y.), together with the Nicolet variable temperature unit incorporated in the NMR system. The probe was allowed to equilibrate for about 11/2 hour at this temperature until a stable value was observed (>1/2 hour) in a sample of Oxypherol-ET in the probe using a thermocouple (1 mm in length, Sensortek Corp., Clifton, N.J.) and an Omega digital thermometer (Stamford, Conn.). Once equilibrium was achieved, the temperature was found to be stable within ±0.1° C. over 1/2 hour. Each sample was allowed to equilibrate for more than 10 minutes in the probe, this being adequate to achieve the stable planned temperature prior to NMR observation. Shimming was performed on the ¹⁹ F signal at 282.31 MHz.

T₁ experiments were performed at 282.31 MHz on the downfield CF₃ plus CF₂ resonances and on the two upfield CF₂ resonances separately with the spectrometer frequency placed midway between the pair of resonances in each case, as shown in FIG. 1. A pulse-burst saturation recovery experiment was performed using 20 saturating pulses (14 μs) followed by an incremental delay (25 values ranging from 5 ms to 15 s) and a 14 μs pulse and acquisition. Four transients were acquired at each delay using phase cycling and quadrature detection, with 1K real and imaginary data points across a spectral width of ±770 Hz for the downfield resonances and ±1900 Hz for the upfield resonances, with the total spectral width being ±8196 Hz. A 10 Hz exponential line broadening was applied prior to Fourier transformation and the T₁ spin-lattice relaxation time was estimated using the formula

    I=a+b exp(-τ/T.sub.1)

where I is the signal intensity, τ is the variable recovery time after saturation, and a and b are constants. (More recently it has been found that the more general equation

    I=a*(1-(b+1)* exp(-τ/T.sub.1))

gives a better estimate of T₁.) Data were processed using regression analysis software (NMR Inc., Syracuse, N.Y.). T₁ experiments were performed on three separate occasions, using fresh emulsion aliquots, to test the reproducibility of the technique.

Fresh Oxypherol-ET emulsion (1 ml, a dose of ≈40 ml/kg) was administered iv on three consecutive days to each of three Meth-A tumor-bearing BALB/C mice. (Oxypherol-ET is not toxic at this dose.) The perfluorocarbon was allowed to clear from the vasculature over a period of at least 6 days, and this clearance was verified by examining a sample of blood by high-resolution ¹⁹ F NMR. Each mouse was anesthetized with Nembutal (Abbott Laboratories, Chicago, Ill.; 50 mg/kg ip) and placed in a home-built probe with the tumor against a 1.8 cm diameter single-turn surface coil tuned to 282.31 MHz. The mouse was held in place by Velcro straps and warm water circulating coils passed around the lower abdomen. The mouse core body temperature was monitored using a rectally inserted thermocouple connected to a digital thermometer outside the magnet. (It has subsequently been found that optical fiber probes provide better temperature monitoring; thermocouples tend to act as antennae introducing noise to the spectrum.) The mouse temperature was maintained at 34.0 ±1.5° C. The T₁ 's of the perfluorocarbon resonances were estimated, as before, using a saturation recovery sequence. This probe required a longer pulse width (80 μs) and eight transients were acquired at each time interval. Each T₁ measurement required 6 min. and the T₁ experiments were repeated to demonstrate reproducibility and to examine changes occurring when the mice breathed carbogen. In order to observe the liver, the surface coil was placed against the chest of the mouse.

Following the in vivo experiments, a mouse was sacrificed and the major organs were dissected. Samples of liver and tumor (≈100 mg) were suspended in D₂ O in 5 mm NMR tubes and saturation recovery T₁ experiments were performed at 34.2° C., as for the calibration experiment.

The calibration results show that Oxypherol-ET has four ¹⁹ F resonances, which are well resolved at 282.31 MHz, as shown in FIG. 1. The arrows in FIG. 1 indicate the positions of the spectrometer frequency for the separate T₁ experiments. FIG. 2 shows the correlation of spin-lattice relaxation rate (1/T₁) relative to oxygen tension (pO₂) for each of the four resonances (CF₃ (□), α-CF₂ , β-CF₂ and γ-CF₂ (∘)) at 34.2° C. (It is preferable to refer to resonances by chemical shift rather than by name as the literature contains contradictions. Ultimately, it is crucial that the correct calibration is applied to a given resonance.) The values at 0 and 95% pO₂ represent the means of three individual determinations, while the other points are individual values. Error bars indicate standard errors of the mean; for low pO₂ the error bars are smaller than the symbols.

There is clear linearity in each case (1/T₁ ∝pO₂). The relationships are described in Table 1.

                  TABLE 1                                                          ______________________________________                                         Dependence of Spin-Lattice                                                     Relaxation Rate (1/T.sub.1) on Oxygen Tension                                  ______________________________________                                         CF.sub.3   1/T.sub.1 = 1.95 × 10.sup.-2 (% pO.sub.2)                                                      r > 0.998                                     α-CF.sub.2                                                                          1/T.sub.1 = 1.69 × 10.sup.-2 (% pO.sub.2)                                                      r > 0.999                                     β-CF.sub.2                                                                           1/T.sub.1 = 1.59 × 10.sup.-2 (% pO.sub.2)                                                      r > 0.998                                     γ-CF.sub.2                                                                          1/T.sub.1 = 1.82 × 10.sup.-2 (% pO.sub.2)                                                      r > 0.997                                     ______________________________________                                    

The spin-lattice relaxation rate (1/T₁) of the CF₃ group was found to range from 0.920 ±0.008 s⁻¹ (pO₂ =0%) to 2.78 ±0.19 s⁻¹ (pO₂ =95%) at 34.2° C. The spin-lattice relaxation time (T₁) of the CF₃ group ranged from 1086 to 360 ms, while the α-CF₂ resonance had the shortest T₁ values, ranging from 515 to 282 ms over the same range (pO₂ =0 to 95%).

FIG. 3 shows the well-resolved downfield resonances in a typical 282 MHz ¹⁹ F spectrum obtained from a mouse tumor in vivo with the surface coil. The 2K real and imaginary data points were acquired across a spectral width of ±2.5 kHz and the spectrum is the average of eight transients. A 20 Hz exponential line broadening was applied prior ro Fourier transformation.

FIG. 4 shows the relaxation curves for the CF₃ (□) and α-CF₂ resonances in a typical experiment from a Meth-A tumor in vivo using the surface coil. The points were obtained from a series of spectra and the curves fit the formula

    I=a+b exp(-τ/T.sub.1)

The signal to noise ratio (S/N) ranged from 7 to 70, and T₁ values of 1086 ±28 and 533 ±18 ms were determined for the CF₃ and α-CF₂ resonances, respectively. By reference to FIG. 2, these T₁ values give estimated values of pO₂ =0.0 ±2.5% (CF₃) and -3.8 ±3.4% (CF₂), respectively. Clearly, pO₂ cannot be negative. The α-CF₂ result may be interpreted as giving an upper limit of pO₂ <3.0%, at the 95% confidence level, in excellent agreement with the value obtained from the more sensitive CF₃ resonance.

For a group of three Meth-A tumors ranging in size from 1.1 to 8.0 cm³ the mean pO₂ was found to be 0.7 ±2.5%. This result was obtained as the sample average of the CF₃ resonance, 0.0 ±1.5%, and of the α-CF₂, 1.3 ±3.5%. These measurements were repeatable: a second series of measurements gave essentially identical values with a mean of pO₂ =2.0 ±2.4%.

An anesthetized Meth-A tumor-bearing mouse was exposed to carbogen at a flow rate of five dm³ /min to assess the effect on tumor and liver pO₂. The surface coil was placed respectively over the tumor or liver of the anesthetized mouse and ¹⁹ F NMR spectra were obtained prior to administration of carbogen and at 5 and 15 min. after the start of carbogen breathing (t=0). See FIG. 5. Individual T₁ estimates required 6 min. There are two curves for each organ, representing measurements of T₁ for the CF₃ (upper) and α-CF₂ (lower) resonances, respectively.

The results showed that when an anesthetized Meth-A tumor-bearing mouse was exposed to carbogen (95% O₂, 5% CO₂) at a flow rate of 5 dm³ /min, there was no significant change in tumor pO₂ over a period of 40 min. In contrast, when similar measurements were made with the surface coil placed over the chest, to obtain signal from the liver, the pO₂ increased from -1.0 ±3.6% (pO₂ <6.2%, p>0.95) to 14.6 ±3.7% as shown in FIG. 5. It is apparent that the T₁ of the signals from the tumor do not vary significantly with breathing oxygen, whereas those from the liver are shortened. FIG. 5B shows the variation of tissue oxygen tension derived from the T₁ 's in FIG. 5A.

Table 2 shows the consistency of pO₂ estimates from each of the resonances of perfluorotributylamine sequestered in the tumor of a living mouse. Estimates obtained from excised tissues are also shown.

                                      TABLE 2                                      __________________________________________________________________________     Comparison of pO.sub.2                                                         Estimates Obtained from Each of the .sup.19 F Resonances                                 CF.sub.3                                                                              α-CF.sub.2                                                                      β-CF.sub.2                                                                       γ-CF.sub.2                                                                      pO.sub.2.sup.a                           __________________________________________________________________________     In vivo                                                                        Tumor  T.sub.1.sup.b                                                                     1039                                                                              ± 23.sup.d                                                                      494                                                                               ± 15                                                                            581                                                                               ± 32                                                                            673                                                                               ± 11                                             pO.sub.2.sup.c                                                                    1.9                                                                               ± 2.2.sup.d                                                                     5.1                                                                               ± 3.0                                                                           2.6                                                                               ± 3.0                                                                           5.3                                                                               ± 1.6                                                                           3.7                                                                               ± 1.3                              Excised tissue                                                                 Liver  T.sub.1                                                                           1164                                                                              ± 20                                                                            526                                                                               ± 7                                                                             585                                                                               ± 15                                                                            766                                                                               ± 5                                              pO.sub.2                                                                          < 1.0**                                                                               < 0.5* 0.0                                                                               ± 2.5                                                                           < 1.0**                                                                               < 1.3*                                   Tumor  T.sub.1                                                                           1157                                                                              ± 36                                                                            527                                                                               ± 13                                                                            609                                                                               ± 12                                                                            729                                                                               ± 14                                             pO.sub.2                                                                          < 3.1* < 2.5* < 1.6* < 2.8* < 1.0**                                  __________________________________________________________________________      .sup.a Mean oxygen tension estimated from the four resonances.                 .sup.b Spinlattice relaxation time (ms).                                       .sup.c Oxygen tension (%).                                                     .sup.d ± 1 SD.                                                              *Probability > 0.95.                                                     

The signal to noise ratio of 7 to 70 in these experiments indicates that the number of acquisitions could be reduced to give a more rapid estimate. The low pO₂ values determined for tumors are consistent with values previously reported in other animal tumors.

EXAMPLE 2

Calibration experiments similar to those in Example 1 were performed sequentially at different temperatures (27.2° C., 34.2° C., 40.6° C., 35.9° C., and 32.6° C.). Temperature was regulated using an FTS TC 44 variable temperature unit (Stone Ridge, N.Y.), together with the Nicolet variable temperature unit incorporated in the NMR system. The probe was allowed to equilibrate until a stable value was observed (>1/2 hour) using a thermocouple (Sensortek Corp., Clifton, N.J.) in a sample of Oxypherol-ET in the probe. Once equilibrium was achieved, the temperature was found to be stable within ±0.1° C. over 1/2 hour. Each sample was allowed to equilibrate for more than 10 minutes in the probe, this being adequate to achieve the stable desired temperature prior to NMR observation.

Spin-lattice relaxation rates at 7 Tesla were determined using a pulse-burst saturation recovery experiment on the downfield CF₃ and CF₂ resonances with the spectrometer frequency placed midway between the pair of resonances, at 282.31 MHz. 4K data points were acquired across a spectral width of ±8196 Hz and a 10 Hz exponential line broadening was applied prior to Fourier transformation. R₁ was estimated using a three parameter fit. Relaxation experiments were performed on three separate occasions using fresh emulsion aliquots, to test the reproducibility of the technique.

Oxypherol-ET emulsion was administered to Meth-A tumor-bearing BALB/C mice and the perfluorocarbon was allowed to clear from the vasculature over a period of at least 6 days. The mice were sacrificed and the major organs dissected. Samples of liver and tumor (≈100 mg) were suspended in D₂ O and relaxation experiments were performed at the various temperatures.

The results again showed that Oxypherol-ET (perfluorotributylamine) has four ¹⁹ F resonances, which are well resolved at 282.3 MHz. Individual R₁ measurements were obtained for each resonance. FIG. 6 shows the variation of R₁ with oxygen tension, and demonstrates that at any specific temperature there is a linear relationship between R₁ and pO₂ for each of the resonances. FIG. 6A shows curves for the CF₃ resonance and FIG. 6B for the downfield CF₂. Separate curves are shown for the temperatures: 27.2° C. , 34.2° C. (□), and 40.6° C. (). Data at 0, 21, and 95% pO₂ represent the mean ± standard, while 8 and 12% are single determinations.

The equations defining the relationship between R₁ and pO₂ at each temperature for each of the two downfield resonances are shown in Table 3.

                                      TABLE 3                                      __________________________________________________________________________     Dependence of Spin-Lattice Relaxation Rate                                     (R.sub.1 (s.sup.-1)) on Oxygen Tension                                         __________________________________________________________________________     CF.sub.3                                                                          27.2° C.                                                                       R.sub.1 = 1.99 × 10.sup.-2 (% pO.sub.2)                                                    r.sup.2 = 0.999                                       34.2° C.                                                                       R.sub.1 = 1.94 × 10.sup.-2 (% pO.sub.2)                                                    r.sup.2 = 0.998                                       40.6° C.                                                                       R.sub.1 = 1.61 × 10.sup.-2 (% pO.sub.2)                                                    r.sup.2 = 0.997                                    CF.sub.2                                                                          27.2° C.                                                                       R.sub.1 = 1.75 × 10.sup.-2 (% pO.sub.2)                                                    r.sup.2 = 0.996                                       34.2° C.                                                                       R.sub.1 = 1.69 × 10.sup.-2 (% pO.sub.2)                                                    r.sup.2 = 0.999                                       40.6° C.                                                                       R.sub.1 = 1.41 × 10.sup.-2 (% pO.sub.2)                                                    r.sup.2 = 0.996                                    __________________________________________________________________________

FIG. 7 shows the dependence of the spin-lattice relaxation rate (R₁) with respect to temperature, in the absence of oxygen (pO₂ =0%). Separate curves are shown for each resonance, CF₃ and CF₂ . Data from the excised mouse tissues are also shown (Δ). Similar curves apply in the presence of oxygen. This figure shows that there is a linear relationship between R₁ and temperature in the range 27°-40° C. for each resonance. The equations for the two lines are shown in Table 4.

                  TABLE 4                                                          ______________________________________                                         Dependence of Spin-Lattice Relaxation Rate                                     (R.sub.1 (s.sup.-1)) on Temperature (pO.sub.2 = 0%)                            ______________________________________                                         CF.sub.3  R.sub.1 = 1.662 - 2.15 × 10.sup.-2 (T (°C.))                                            r.sub.2 = 0.934                                CF.sub.2  R.sub.1 = 3.353 - 4.15 × 10.sup.-2 (T (°C.))                                            r.sub.2 = 0.960                                ______________________________________                                    

Data were acquired both during heating and cooling. Significantly, they lie on the same line. The data for excised hypoxic liver and tumor tissue in FIG. 7 also showed a substantial degree of agreement with the calibration curves.

EXAMPLE 3

The relationship between T₁ and pO₂, temperature, and magnetic field strength was determined for Oxypherol-ET at 37° C. and 7 T, using techniques as described above. Three types of experiments were performed on myocardial tissue: accurate pO₂ measurements, ultrafast pO₂ determinations, and MRI to assess the distribution of PFC in the heart.

Oxypherol-ET was administered to four Sprague-Dawley rats (1 ml per 100 g daily iv in the tail for 8 days). One week after the final infusion of Oxypherol-ET, the PFC-loaded heart was excised and perfused with Krebs-Henseleit buffer at 37° C. using Langendorff retrograde perfusion. The perfusate was equilibrated with carbogen (95% O₂, 5% CO₂). To remove blood and any residual blood-borne PFC, the initial 10 min. of perfusion was performed with nonrecycling medium.

The temperature was monitored using a microthermocouple (Sensortek, Clifton, N.J.) in the perfusion medium close to the heart. Fluorine spectra were acquired at 282 MHz using a 20 mm NMR probe (VSP, Bruker, Billerica, Miss.) is a Nicolet NT 300 (7 T) NMR spectrometer. This gave a pulse width ¹⁹ F (π/2)≈120 μs. Shimming was accomplished on the sodium signal to a typical linewidth of ≈13 Hz (²³ Na).

For the accurate pO₂ determination, the spectrometer frequency was placed midway between the downfield CF₃ and CF₂ resonances. The spin-lattice relaxation times of the two resonances were determined using a pulse-burst saturation recovery pulse sequence. Following a 100 μs (90°) pulse 1K data points were acquired across a spectral width of ±1.4 KHz. A 40 Hz exponential line broadening was applied prior to Fourier transformation. Spectra were acquired with 14 delay times in the range of 25 ms to 12 s and four acquisitions per delay requiring a total of 2.5 min.

For the ultrafast pO₂ determination, T₁ was estimated using a two-point determination which provided a time resolution of 1.2 s. Under conditions of rapid pulsing (T_(R) <5T₁, where T_(R) is the repetition time), the signal was subject to partial saturation and the observed intensity (I) was related to the fully relaxed intensity (I₀) by the expression

    I=I.sub.0 [1-exp(-T.sub.R /T.sub.1)]

With T_(R) held constant, changes in T₁ produced changes in I, allowing the monitoring of dynamic changes in pO₂ during the onset of global ischemia.

For the MRI experiments, the heart was examined by proton (¹ H) and ¹⁹ F NMR imaging. A balloon filled with D₂ O was inserted into the left ventricle and the heart was also suspended in D₂ O. Imaging was performed using an Omega 9.4 T NMR spectrometer (GE, Fremont, Calif.) with self-shielded Acustar gradient coils and a home-built 25 mm i.d. Helmholtz coil tunable to both ¹ H and ¹⁹ F. The probe was tuned to 400 MHz for proton MRI. Images were acquired as a three dimensional spin-echo data set (256*256*8) with T_(R) =500 ms, T_(E) =20 ms, and the 230 μm in-plane resolution with 2.5 mm slice thickness. The pulse width was 200 μs (90°) and four acquisitions were acquired for each increment. The corresponding ¹⁹ F images were also acquired as a three-dimensional spin-echo data set with additional driven-equilibrium pulses to enhance acquisition efficiency and produce a PFC density map. The ¹⁹ F imaging parameters were T_(R) =75 ms, T_(E) =5 ms, and a 460 μm in-plane resolution with 2.5 mm slice thickness. With the probe tuned to 376.47 MHz a 170 μs (90°) pulse was used with 900 acquisitions per increment requiring a total of 19 hours for the three-dimensional acquisition.

The results showed a linear relationship between R₁ and pO₂ for each resonance as shown in FIG. 8 (CF₃ (□) and CF₂ ; values represent means of three individual determinations; error bars indicate standard errors of the mean), and in Table 5 below.

                  TABLE 5                                                          ______________________________________                                         Dependence of Spin-Lattice                                                     Relaxation Rate (R.sub.1) on Oxygen Tension at 37° C.*                  a b             r         α  β                                      ______________________________________                                         CF.sub.3                                                                             R.sub.1  = 0.88 + 0.0172                                                                     > 0.999   ± 0.012                                                                            ± 0.0003                                     (% pO.sub.2)                                                             CF.sub.2                                                                             R.sub.1  = 1.80 + 0.0145                                                                     > 0.997   ± 0.021                                                                            ± 0.0005                                     (% pO.sub.2)                                                             ______________________________________                                          *a = intercept (s.sup.-1), b = slope (s.sup.-1 /% pO.sub.2), r =               correlation coefficient, α = standard error of the intercept             (s.sup.-1), β = standard error of the slope (s.sup.-1 /% pO.sub.2),       R.sub.1 = spinlattice relaxation rate (s.sup.-1), pO.sub.2 = oxygen            tension (% atmosphere)                                                   

Heart functions (rate, developed pressure, coronary flow) and ³¹ P NMR spectra appeared normal. An intense ¹⁹ F signal was obtained in one acquisition and the resonances of perfluorotributylamine were clearly resolved in the perfused heart, as shown in FIG. 9. For the CF₃ resonance, T₁ =549 ±15 ms (n=4) (mean ±SD, n=number of hearts), and for CF₂, T₁ =387 ±30 ms, which corresponds to pO₂ =54.8 ±3.1 and 54.7 ±14.1%, respectively, giving a mean value of 54.8 ±9.4% (≈416 Torr). The signal/noise ratio was greater than 20 and the resonances were well resolved. A second measurement 10 min. later gave essentially identical values.

Perfusion was stopped, inducing total global ischemia, and 2 min. later T₁ 's were again determined. The T₁ of each of the resonances increased; for CF₃, 1221 ±61 ms, and for CF₂, 569 ±58 ms, corresponding to pO₂ =-3.6 ±2.3 and -2.3 ±12.2%, respectively, giving a mean value of -3.0 ±8.2%. After 8 min. of global ischemia, the heart was reperfused and the new T₁ values indicated substantial reoxygenation. FIG. 10 shows the variation in the T₁ 's and calculated pO₂ 's for a typical heart. FIG. 10A shows the variation in T₁ for each resonance CF₃ (□) and CF₂ . FIG. 10B shows the mean pO₂ derived from the T₁ 's of the CF₃ and CF₂ resonances. The normoxic heart showed a high stable pO₂ (≈60%, ≈450 Torr). During ischemia pO₂ fell to 0%, i.e. hypoxia. Upon reperfusion there was substantial reoxygenation and pO₂ returned to its initial value.

Complete loss of oxygen occurred within the time required to make these measurement (2.5 min.), indicating the need for enhanced time resolution to determine the dynamics of oxygen loss.

Rapid dynamic changes in pO₂ were observed using a series of partial-saturation spectra. FIG. 11 shows the dynamic changes in signal intensity with the onset of global ischemia; loss of oxygen from a perfused rat heart was complete within 40 s. The initial peak shows the fully relaxed signal intensity (I₀). The initial plateau (I₁) results from spectra acquired during normal perfusion (I₁ /I₀ =0.86 ±0.06, T₁ =610 ±100 ms, pO₂ =44 ±14%). The onset of ischemia caused rapid loss of signal intensity and hypoxia was evident within 40 s, giving a new steady state (I₂ /I₀ =0.68 ±0.06, T₁ =1050 ±200 ms, pO₂ =4.2 ±8%). This rapid change indicates the importance of high temporal resolution in monitoring dynamic changes in cardiac pO₂. The upper trace shows the corresponding ventricular pressure, indicating close correlation between pressure and pO₂.

These values were in substantial agreement with T₁ determinations made in the same heart using PBSR immediately before and after the partial saturation experiment; i.e. T₁ (perfused)=540 ms and T₁ (ischemic)=1240 ms. There was minimal change in the partial saturation intensity of the CF₂ resonance with the onset of ischemia due to the shorter T₁ 's. There was close correlation between oxygen tension and observed ventricular pressure. Following 8 min. of global ischemia, reperfusion provided extensive reoxygenation and pO₂ returned to its initial value within 1 min. Extended ischemia (1 hour) led to contracture and minimal reoxygenation upon reflow.

Proton and ¹⁹ F NMR images of the heart indicated that PFC was distributed throughout the heart.

EXAMPLE 4

The relationship (R₁ ∝pO₂) was determined experimentally for Oxygent (90% w/v emulsion perflubron) using techniques similar to those described above. Standard gases (0-100% O₂, where 100%≈760 Torr) were bubbled through aliquots of Oxygent in order to obtain specific oxygen concentrations and the samples were placed in gas-tight NMR tubes. NMR experiments were conducted in a 4.7 T CSI spectrometer with ¹⁹ F at 188.3 MHz. R₁ was determined using pulse-burst saturation recovery experiments on the downfield resonances (18 and 0 ppm) and on the upfield resonances separately. The variation of R₁ with temperature was examined in the range 27°-37° C.

Additionally, a Dunning prostate adenocarcinoma R3327-AT1 was implanted in a pedicle on the fore-back of a Copenhagen rat. When the tumor reached about 1.5 cm diameter a total of 20 ml Oxygent was infused IV into the tail of the rat over a period of one week. Four days after the final dose, following complete vascular clearance of Oxygent the rat was anesthetized (2:1::N₂ O:O₂ +0.5% methoxyflurane) and the tumor observed by ¹⁹ F NMR spectroscopy with a coil around the tumor. The rectal temperature was measured using an optical fiber probe. In addition the tumor was imaged by ¹ H and ¹⁹ F MRI to determine the distribution of PFC in the tumor.

The ¹⁹ F NMR spectrum of Oxygent showed five well resolved signals in the tumor in vivo at 4.7 T, as shown in FIG. 12. A linear relationship between spin-lattice relaxation rate and oxygen tension (R₁ (s⁻¹)=m%pO₂ +c) was determined for each signal at 37° C., as shown in Table 6 and FIG. 13. The data points in FIG. 13 represent the CF₃ resonance (0 ppm).

                                      TABLE 6                                      __________________________________________________________________________     Relationship R.sub.1 = f(pO.sub.2) at 37° C.                                        Chem.                 Sensi-                                                   Shift                                                                              Intercept (c)                                                                           Slope (m)                                                                               tivity                                       Emulsion                                                                             Resonance                                                                            ppm s.sup.-1 s.sup.-1 /%                                                                             η = m/c                                  __________________________________________________________________________     Oxygen                                                                               CF.sub.2 Br                                                                          18  R.sub.1 = 0.2893 + 1.52 × 10.sup.-2 (%                                                     5.3sub.2)                                    4.7 T CF.sub.3                                                                              0  R.sub.1 = 0.2677 + 1.61 × 10.sup.-2 (%                                                     6.0sub.2)                                                -36 R.sub.1 = 0.2762 + 1.50 × 10.sup.-2 (%                                                     5.4sub.2)                                                -40 R.sub.1 = 0.3840 + 1.48 × 10.sup.-2 (%                                                     3.9sub.2)                                                -45 R.sub.1 = 0.2890 + 1.54 × 10.sup.-2 (%                                                     5.3sub.2)                                    Oxygent                                                                              CF.sub.3                                                                              0  R.sub.1 = 0.290 + 1.73 ×  10.sup.-2 (% pO.sub.2)                                           6.0                                            7 T                                                                          Oxypherol                                                                            CF.sub.3                                                                              0  R.sub.1 = 0.779 + 1.75 × 10.sup.-2 (% pO.sub.2)                                            2.2                                          4.7 T                                                                          __________________________________________________________________________

R₁ is not only dependent on pO₂ but also has a linear relationship with temperature, as shown in Table 7 and FIG. 14. The data points in FIG. 6 represent the CF₃ resonance R₁ =0.444-4.97×10⁻³ (T(°C.))) and the CF₂ Br resonance (□, R₁ =0.432-4.10×10⁻³ (T(°C.))), both in the absence of oxygen (pO₂ =0% ).

                  TABLE 7                                                          ______________________________________                                         Influence of Temperature on Relationship R.sub.1 = f (pO.sub.2)                for Oxygent at 4.7 T                                                                                              Tem-                                                Intercept (c)                                                                               Slope (m)     perature                                    Resonance                                                                              s.sup.-1     s.sup.-1 /%   °C.                                  ______________________________________                                         CF.sub.2 Br                                                                            R.sub.1 = 0.3374 + 1.71 × 10.sup.-2 (% pO.sub.2)                                                27                                              CF.sub.2 Br                                                                            R.sub.1 = 0.3152 + 1.54 × 10.sup.-2 (% pO.sub.2)                                                33                                              CF.sub.2 Br                                                                            R.sub.1 = 0.2893 + 1.52 × 10.sup.-2 (% pO.sub.2)                                                36.6                                            CF.sub.3                                                                               R.sub.1 = 0.3018 + 1.836 × 10.sup.-2 (% pO.sub.2)                                               27                                              CF.sub.3                                                                               R.sub.1 = 0.2772 + 1.797 × 10.sup.-2 (% pO.sub.2)                                               33                                              CF.sub.3                                                                               R.sub.1 = 0.2677 + 1.613 × 10.sup.-2 (% pO.sub.2)                                               36.6                                            ______________________________________                                    

In the AT1 tumor, R₁ (CF₃)=0.40 s⁻¹ and R₁ (CF₂ Br)=0.40 s⁻¹ were measured. The rectal temperature was 33° C. and thus, using the calibration curves from Table 7, pO₂ was estimated as 6.9% and 5.5% respectively or ≈45 Torr. ¹⁹ F MRI indicated that Oxygent was distributed throughout the tumor, with highest density close to the periphery.

Using a sensitivity index (η=slope/intercept) it appears that the resonances at 18 ppm (CF₂ Br) and 0 ppm (CF₃) are the most sensitive to changes in pO₂. There is very little difference between the calibration curves at 4.7 T and those previously determined at 7 T. However, note that application of the 7 T curves to the current data would produce an error ≈15 Torr, which is radiobiologically significant.

The sensitivity to pO₂ of each of the Oxygent signals is considerably greater than that of the most sensitive signal of Oxypherol, as shown in Table 6. At the same time Oxygent is far less sensitive to changes in temperature, so that small errors in temperature measurement produce less error in pO₂ estimation. For example, a 2° C. error in temperature estimation gives an error of 0.6% (5 Torr) for Oxygent, whereas an error of ≈15 Torr is typical for Oxypherol. The large separation of the CF₃ and CF₂ Br resonances ensures the signals are resolved even at lower magnetic field and permits individual R₁ estimates to be obtained. This provides independent estimates of pO₂, enhancing the confidence in the result. The wide separation of the resonances also facilitates chemical shift selective imaging, avoiding chemical shift artifacts.

EXAMPLE 5

The relationship R₁ ∝pO₂ was determined for Oxygent at 37° C. and 7 Tesla using techniques generally like those described above. Standard gases were bubbled through aliquots of Oxygent in order to obtain specific oxygen concentration and the samples were placed in gas-tight NMR tubes. Pulse-burst saturation recovery experiments were performed on the downfield resonances (18 and 0 ppm) and on the upfield resonances separately. R₁ was estimated using a three parameter fit. The variation of R₁ with temperature was examined in the range 4°-50° C.

Also, Oxygent was administered to a mouse (3×500 μl over 5 days). Four days later the mouse was anesthetized and placed with a surface coil against the chest to observe the liver and spleen. R₁ was determined using techniques as described above and the rectal temperature was monitored using a Luxtron fiber optic probe.

The ¹⁹ F NMR spectrum of Oxygent (PFOB) had seven well-resolved signals as shown in FIG. 15. Each resonance showed a linear relationship between spin-lattice relaxation rate and oxygen tension at 37° C. as shown in Table 8.

                                      TABLE 8                                      __________________________________________________________________________           Resonance                                                                      Chem. shift                                                                          Intercept (c)                                                                           Slope (m)                                                                               Sensitivity                                      Emulsion                                                                             ppm   s.sup.-1 s.sup.-1 /%                                                                             η (m/c)                                      __________________________________________________________________________     Oxygent                                                                              18    R.sub.1 = 0.354 + 1.72 × 10.sup.-2 (%                                                      4.7sub.2)                                               0    R.sub.1 = 0.290 + 1.73 × 10.sup.-2 (%                                                      6.0sub.2)                                              -36   R.sub.1 = 0.415 + 1.54 × 10.sup.-2 (%                                                      3.7sub.2)                                              -39   R.sub.1 = 0.613 + 1.58 × 10.sup.-2 (%                                                      2.6sub.2)                                              -40   R.sub.1 = 0.614 + 1.51 × 10.sup.-2 (%                                                      2.5sub.2)                                              -41   R.sub.1 = 0.586 + 1.47 × 10.sup.-2 (%                                                      2.5sub.2)                                              -45   R.sub.1 = 0.455 + 1.56 × 10.sup.-2 (% pO.sub.                                              3.4                                              Oxypherol                                                                             0    R.sub.1 = 0.886 + 1.72 × 10.sup.-2 (%                                                      1.9sub.2)                                        __________________________________________________________________________

FIG. 16 graphically compares the linear relationship for the most and least sensitive resonances of Oxygent with Oxypherol. (Oxygent 0 ppm , Oxygent -40 ppm (∘), and Oxypherol CF₃ .) FIG. 17 shows the variation of spin-lattice relaxation rate with temperature in the absence of oxygen, for Oxygent resonances at 0 and 40 ppm (∘).

When the mouse had a core temperature of 28.2° C., R₁ values of 0.69 s⁻¹ and 0.65 s⁻¹ were found for the resonances at 18 and 0 ppm, respectively. These values indicated pO₂ =14% and 14.5% respectively, or about 100 Torr.

EXAMPLE 6

¹⁹ F relaxometry of an Oxygent PFC emulsion sequestered in rat tumor tissue at 4.7 T and 33° C. showed that the most sensitive resonance of Oxygent (perflubron) (CF₃) showed a relationship R₁ =0.277+0.018 (%pO₂), which is considerably more sensitive than R₁ =0.868+0.018(%pO₂) for Oxypherol (CF₃). Moreover, perflubron was relatively insensitive to interference from tissue temperature (R₁ =0.44-0.005(°C.) vs. R₁ =1.38-0.0169(°C.) for Oxypherol at 0% pO₂). In addition, the most sensitive resonances in perflubron (CF₃ and CF₂ Br) remain well resolved at 4.7 T (Δδ≈18 ppm), whereas CF₃ may overlap the downfield-CF₂ (the least sensitive resonance in Oxypherol) particularly in heterogenous tissue such as tumor.

EXAMPLE 7

Representative 282 MHz ¹⁹ F NMR spectra of four commercial PFC emulsions are compared in FIG. 18A-18D. The emulsions are: (a) Oxypherol (20% w/v emulsion of perfluorotributylamine), (b) Oxygent (90% w/v emulsion perflubron), (c) Therox (40% w/v emulsion of trans-1,2 bis-(perfluorobutyl)-ethylene), and (d) Fluosol (emulsion of 14% w/v perfluorodecalin and 6% w/v perfluorotripropylamine (PFTP)). The CF₃ resonance of each emulsion is essentially coincident and is set to 0 ppm. There is some confusion in the literature regarding spectral assignments, and it may be preferable to refer to resonances by the chemical shift. CF₂ 's occur ≈40 ppm upfield, while CF₂ X (hetero-nucleus) are shifted downfield.

EXAMPLE 8

Oxypherol was administered (4×4 ml over 2 days) to a Copenhagen rat which had a Dunning prostatic adenocarcinoma AT1 grown in a skin pedicle on its foreback. ¹⁹ F MRI showed that the PFC was extensively distributed throughout the tumor immediately after administration. Two days later the clearance of the PFC from the vasculature was complete. Over the next 16 days, the tumor doubled in diameter. However, comparison of sequential ¹⁹ F MRI images showed that the PFC remained in the central tumor tissue and did not redistribute.

Using a volume coil around the tumor, ¹⁹ F spectroscopy determined R₁ =1.013 s⁻¹ (32° C.), indicating pO₂ ≈90 Torr. As the tumor grew, pO₂ declined to 30 Torr 12 days after administration and to 0 Torr by day 16. This corresponded with the predicted onset of central tumor hypoxia.

EXAMPLE 9

The following NMR experiments were performed using a Nicolet NT300 (7 T) spectrometer, and using the perfluorocarbon emulsion Oxypherol-ET (prepared according to the manufacturer's instructions). For calibration experiments, standard gases having specific oxygen tensions (0%, 8%, 12.2% 21% and 95% O₂, with 100%=760 Torr) were prepared as described above. The samples were placed in gas tight 5 mm NMR tubes and ¹⁹ F NMR spectra were obtained at 282 MHz. Temperature was carefully regulated using an FTS TC 44 variable temperature unit (Stone Ridge, N.Y.), together with the Nicolet variable temperature unit incorporated in the NMR system. The 5 mm probe was allowed to equilibrate until a stable temperature was observed (≧1/2 hour) using a thermocouple (Sensortek Corp., Clifton, N.J.) inserted in the probe. Once equilibrium was achieved, the temperature was found to be stable within ±0.1° C. over 1/2 h. Each sample of Oxypherol-ET was allowed to equilibrate for more than 10 min. in the probe, this being adequate to achieve the stable desired temperature prior to NMR observation.

R₁ was determined in 81 samples at 14 different temperatures in the range 27°-50° C. An additional data set was acquired at 5° C. Spin-lattice relaxation rates were determined generally as described above. Separate pulse-burst saturation recovery (PBSR) experiments were performed on the downfield CF₃ +β-CF₂ resonances and the two upfield CF₂ s with the spectrometer frequency placed midway between the pair of resonances. R₁ was estimated using a three-parameter fit. Linear regression analysis was performed to determine the relationships between R₁, pO₂, and temperature, and standard errors of slopes and intercepts were assessed.

In addition, the following in vivo experiments were performed. A Meth-A tumor-bearing BALB/C mouse was injected with Oxypherol-ET (3×1 ml, IV) over three days. Following complete vascular clearance of the PFC (six days), the mouse was anesthetized and the tumor placed against a 1.8 cm surface coil. R₁ values were determined for the sequestered PFC using PBSR, generally as described above.

Oxypherol-ET was also administered to a rat (1 ml/100 g daily IV in the tail for eight days). The PFC-loaded heart was excised and perfused with Krebs-Henseleit buffer at 37° C. using Langendorff retrograde perfusion. In order to remove blood and any residual blood-borne PFC, the initial 10 min. of perfusion were performed with nonrecycling medium. Fluorine spectra of sequestered PFC were acquired using a 20 mm NMR probe.

Further, in order to verify that calibration curves determined in solution are applicable in tissue, a PFC-loaded liver was excised from a rat which had been dosed with Oxypherol as described for the heart studies above. Slices of hypoxic liver were suspended in water and ¹⁹ F relaxation rate experiments were performed at 31° C., 44° C., and 5° C., as described for the calibration experiments.

In addition, an Oxypherol-loaded heart was perfused as described above. 15 mM KCl was included in the perfusate to arrest the heart. The heart was cooled and maintained at 5° C. using chilled perfusate and the external variable temperature unit. Mini Clark oxygen electrodes (Diamond General, Ann Arbor, Mich.) connected to a Yellow-Springs monitor (Yellow Springs, Ohio) were placed in the perfusate at the point of cannulation (arterial pO₂, AO₂) and in the right ventricle to detect coronary sinus effluent (venous pO₂, VO₂). A fiber optic temperature probe (Luxtron, Mountain View, Calif.) was placed in the perfusate close to the heart to independently monitor temperature. The perfusate was saturated with various gases (0%, 12.2%, 50%, and 95% O₂), and following a period of equilibration the ¹⁹ F R₁ s were determined together with AVO₂.

As to the results, assessment of the variation in intercept and slope with temperature of the linear oxygen dependence (R₁ =a+bpO₂) indicated the three-dimensional relationship R₁ =f(T, pO₂). A relationship assuming linear dependence upon oxygen tension and temperature as well as a mixed term gave an excellent fit to the data, as given for each resonance in Table 9.

                                      TABLE 9                                      __________________________________________________________________________     Dependence of R.sub.1 on pO.sub.2 and Temperature                              for the Form R.sub.1 = A + BT + CpO.sub.2 + DTpO.sub.2                         A B C D               α.sup.a                                                                     β.sup.a                                                                      γ.sup.a                                                                      δ.sup.a                                  __________________________________________________________________________     CF.sub.3                                                                           R.sub.1 =                                                                          1.647 - 0.021 T + 0.027 P -                                                                  0.011                                                                             0.001                                                                             0.00077                                                                            0.00006                                                0.000208 PT                                                            β-CF.sub.2                                                                    R.sub.1 =                                                                          3.363 - 0.043 T + 0.027 P -                                                                  0.024                                                                             0.002                                                                             0.0012                                                                             0.00012                                                0.000284 PT                                                            γ-CF.sub.2                                                                   R.sub.1 =                                                                          2.967 - 0.038 T + 0.021 P -                                                                  0.013                                                                             0.001                                                                             0.00039                                                                            0.00004                                                0.000131 PT                                                            α-CF.sub.2                                                                   R.sub.1 =                                                                          2.432 - 0.030 T + 0.029 P -                                                                  0.016                                                                             0.002                                                                             0.0012                                                                             0.000097                                               0.000290 PT                                                            __________________________________________________________________________      .sup.a Standard error of the respective coefficient                      

Thus, if temperature or pO₂ is known, then the other parameter is readily obtained from the formulae. However, if neither is known then there is a family of solutions represented by an R₁ isocontour, e.g., R₁ in FIG. 19.

The equations in Table 9 show that each resonance behaves uniquely with respect to oxygen tension and temperature. Thus, it is possible to solve a pair of simultaneous equations for pO₂ and temperature from a pair of R₁ s.

This is shown graphically in FIG. 19. Isocontours are shown for CF₃ (solid) (R₁ =1.12 ±0.08 s⁻¹) and β-CF₂ (dotted) (R₁ =2.028 ±0.01 s⁻¹) resonances. The intersection of the CF₃ and β-CF₂ isocontours defines pO₂ and temperature. In this case the standard emulsion has pO₂ =12.2% at 36.4° C. The curves intersect at 12% and 35.8° C., a very close agreement of observed and fitted values. The isocontours of all four resonances should in principle intersect at the same value of pO₂ and temperature. In practice each pair of lines intersects at a slightly different value due to experimental errors.

FIG. 20 shows the simultaneous determination of temperature and pO₂ in vivo in the murine tumor (T, left) and the perfused rat heart (H, right). In each case R₁ isocontours are shown for CF₃ (solid) and β-CF₂ (dotted) resonances with the intersection defining pO₂ and temperature. In the tumor R₁ (CF₃)=0.921 ±0.025 s⁻¹, and R₁ (CF₂)=1.876 ±0.06 s⁻¹, giving pO₂ =0% (0 Torr) at 34.6° C. In the heart R₁ (CF₃)=1.898 ±0.050 s⁻¹, and R₁ (CF₂)=2.755 ±0.15 s⁻¹, giving pO₂ =47.9% (360 Torr) at 33.7° C.

FIG. 21 shows the effect of tissue sequestration on ¹⁹ F R₁ of Oxypherol. R₁ in solution (pO₂ =0%): CF₃, β-CF₂ ; R₁ in excised hypoxic liver: Δ CF₃, ∘ β-CF₂. At 31° C. and 44° C., R₁ is equivalent in tissue or solution, validating the use of this technique to measure temperatures in vivo.

FIG. 22 shows the response of ¹⁹ F R₁ of the CF₃ resonance of Oxypherol to variations in pO₂ at 5° C. solution; Δ KCl arrested Langendorff perfused rat heart). AVO₂ difference=0% using oxygen electrodes. This validates the use of ¹⁹ F R₁ of Oxypherol to monitor pO₂ in vivo.

A composition in accordance with the present invention is preferably administered to a living subject parenterally, and most preferably intravenously. Preferred dosages are believed to be between 0.1-1.0 ml/kg body weight. The administration of multiple doses of PFC emulsion enhances the concentration of PFC and thus, tissues which tend to accumulate little PFC, such as tumors and the heart, can be more efficiently observed.

The preceding description of specific embodiments of the present invention is not intended to be a complete list of every possible embodiment of the invention. Persons skilled in this field will recognize that modifications can be made to the specific embodiments described here that would be within the scope of the present invention. 

We claim:
 1. A method of non-invasively determining oxygen tension and temperature of tissue in a living mammalian subject, including the steps of:administering to a living mammalian subject a biologically compatible ¹⁹ F-containing spectroscopy agent in an amount effective to generate a measurable ¹⁹ F spectrum under ¹⁹ F NMR spectroscopy, wherein the ¹⁹ F-containing spectroscopy agent has at least two ¹⁹ F resonances which can be detected simultaneously by ¹⁹ F NMR spectroscopy; allowing sufficient time to elapse for substantially all of the ¹⁹ F-containing spectroscopy agent to be cleared from the vascular system of the subject, with at least a portion of the ¹⁹ F-containing spectroscopy agent becoming sequestered in tissue of the subject; subjecting tissue in which the ¹⁹ F-containing spectroscopy agent has become sequestered to a ¹⁹ F magnetic resonance spectroscopy procedure, in which simultaneous measurements are made of spin-lattice relaxation rates from the at least two ¹⁹ F resonances of the ¹⁹ F-containing spectroscopy agent; and comparing the at least two spin-lattice relaxation rates measured in the ¹⁹ F magnetic resonance spectroscopy procedure to a predetermined relation of spin-lattice relaxation rate to oxygen tension and temperature for the ¹⁹ F-containing spectroscopy agent used at the magnetic field used, and thereby simultaneously determining the oxygen tension and temperature of the tissue.
 2. The method of claim 1, where the oxygen tension is determined by a graphical comparison of the at least two independent measurements of spin-lattice relaxation rates with the predetermined relation of spin-lattice relaxation rate to oxygen tension.
 3. The method of claim 1, where the oxygen tension is determined by solving simultaneous equations which are based on the predetermined relation of spin-lattice relaxation rate to oxygen tension, making use of the at least two spin-lattice relaxation rates measured.
 4. The method of claim 1, where the ¹⁹ F magnetic resonance spectroscopy procedure is a pulse-burst saturation recovery spectroscopy procedure.
 5. The method of claim 1, where the ¹⁹ F-containing spectroscopy agent contains a perfluorocarbon emulsion.
 6. The method of claim 1, where neither oxygen tension nor temperature of the tissue is directly measured.
 7. A method of non-invasively determining oxygen tension and temperature of tissue in a living mammalian subject, including the steps of:administering to a living mammalian subject a biologically compatible perfluorocarbon emulsion which has at least two ¹⁹ F resonances which can be detected simultaneously, in an amount effective to generate a measurable ¹⁹ F spectrum under ¹⁹ F NMR spectroscopy; allowing sufficient time to elapse for substantially all of the perfluorocarbon emulsion to be cleared from the vascular system of the subject, with at least a portion of the perfluorocarbon emulsion becoming sequestered in tissue of the subject; subjecting tissue in which the perfluorocarbon emulsion has become sequestered to a ¹⁹ F magnetic resonance spectroscopy procedure in which simultaneous measurements are made of spin-lattice relaxation rates for the at least two ¹⁹ F resonances of the perfluorocarbon emulsion; and comparing the at least two spin-lattice relaxation rates measured in the ¹⁹ F magnetic resonance spectroscopy procedure to a predetermined relation of spin-lattice relaxation rate to oxygen tension and temperature for the perfluorocarbon emulsion used at the magnetic field used, and thereby determining the oxygen tension and temperature of the tissue without directly measuring either. 